學(xué)習語言的方法
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學(xué)習語言的方法范文第1篇
【關(guān)鍵詞】漢語言文學(xué)；學(xué)習方法；系統(tǒng)化；抓重點；多練習
漢語言文學(xué)學(xué)習對我們?nèi)粘Ｉ钪械慕徽劊瑴贤ㄊ鞘直匾模瑵h語言與我們每個人的生活都是息息相關(guān)的，我們每天通過各種方式使用漢語言，掌握漢語言這門基本的課程直接影響到我們的日常生活。漢語言文學(xué)的類型繁多，種類豐富，有詩詞歌賦，小說，散文等等，針對不同類型的漢語言文學(xué)，應(yīng)該有不同的學(xué)習方法和學(xué)習技巧，這樣才能夠掌握好漢語言。漢語言文學(xué)的學(xué)習與其他語言或者課程是有共通之處的，比如說，在學(xué)習漢語言文學(xué)的記憶技巧中，在背誦詩詞歌賦時，可以采用一些背誦技巧，譬如英語單詞的背誦技巧有詞義分析，聯(lián)想記憶法，詞綴詞根的分類記憶法，舉一個簡單的例子，英語單詞有許多的后綴，如—tor，或者—er，有這類詞綴的單詞一般屬于名詞且，比如work加er后綴變成worker，就從動詞變成了名詞。類似英語單詞這種單詞分類，后綴等的記憶方法也可以運用到漢語言文學(xué)的學(xué)習中。漢語言文學(xué)的有效學(xué)習方法要在學(xué)習經(jīng)驗中，多加總結(jié)或者套用一些其他科目課程的學(xué)習技巧。另外，在學(xué)習漢語言中，針對字詞的學(xué)習可以通過形聲字或者句子等來幫助記憶和學(xué)習。總的來說，漢語言文學(xué)的學(xué)習存在一些問題，但是這些困難是可以通過變通來解決的，漢語言文學(xué)的學(xué)習要注重技巧和方法，要提高學(xué)習效率或者掌握更多的漢語言文學(xué)知識就必須要下足功夫，探尋有效的學(xué)習方法。
一、漢語言文學(xué)的學(xué)習要系統(tǒng)化
漢語言文學(xué)主要由漢語語音，語法和詞匯組成，漢語言這門課程的學(xué)習強調(diào)系統(tǒng)學(xué)習，要建立系統(tǒng)的知識結(jié)構(gòu)，在學(xué)習漢語言文學(xué)時，首先要把漢語言的內(nèi)容，模塊進行系統(tǒng)化的整理，在腦袋中形成一定的知識架構(gòu)，這樣，才能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)知識的銜接和記憶。漢語言文學(xué)的教材在編排上一般會按照基礎(chǔ)到提升部分，在學(xué)習漢語言文學(xué)時，就必須要按照基礎(chǔ)——提升，這樣的順序，系統(tǒng)化學(xué)習是能夠全面地掌握整體知識，系統(tǒng)化學(xué)習還講求對知識的銜接，漢語言文學(xué)的基礎(chǔ)知識對后面較難的部分是關(guān)鍵的，只有掌握基礎(chǔ)知識才能夠進一步學(xué)習更深的部分，漢語言系統(tǒng)化學(xué)習就要求不能夠遺漏任何知識模塊，否則系統(tǒng)化學(xué)習就不完整。漢語言文學(xué)的組成成員中，相對比較基礎(chǔ)的內(nèi)容，比如漢字或者詞組，要完整地掌握這部分級別較低的組成成員，就像英語學(xué)習中，單詞是基礎(chǔ)一樣，沒有單詞就沒有完整的句式和文章。認識到課程的系統(tǒng)性，然后明確學(xué)習順序，知識的結(jié)構(gòu)，學(xué)習中才能在腦海中形對漢語言文學(xué)的學(xué)習藍圖，漢語言系統(tǒng)化學(xué)習就必須對基礎(chǔ)知識有一個比較全面的認識，然后才能夠打好基礎(chǔ)，以便后續(xù)學(xué)習中將知識模塊串聯(lián)起來，把相關(guān)的知識系統(tǒng)化地聯(lián)系起來。系統(tǒng)化學(xué)習還能夠方便我們的記憶，很多人在學(xué)習語言時，記憶的東西總是成為一個難點，這是因為他們沒有掌握一些必要的記憶技巧，另外，是因為他們沒有理解性地進行記憶，沒有掌握知識結(jié)構(gòu)和知識系統(tǒng)，這樣他們要記憶東西就會比較難。只有認識到漢語言文學(xué)系統(tǒng)化學(xué)習的重要性，并且在學(xué)習中把握好系統(tǒng)化學(xué)習方法，才能夠幫助我們更好地學(xué)習漢語言文學(xué)。
二、漢語言文學(xué)的學(xué)習必須要抓住學(xué)習重點
漢語言文學(xué)內(nèi)容豐富，并且理論也很多，要學(xué)習好漢語言文學(xué)就必須對學(xué)習內(nèi)容進行必要的整理，總結(jié)，要把握漢語言文學(xué)的重點內(nèi)容，深入學(xué)習。其實，任何科目都是有偏重點的，漢語言文學(xué)的學(xué)習也有它的重點，加強對重點的學(xué)習，有目的性地學(xué)習才能掌握真正有用的東西。漢語言文學(xué)中，存在著名詞術(shù)語較多，知識點多，語言或者句子的表達形式多樣的情況，因此，面對這么多的漢語言文學(xué)知識，我們不可能全部都啃下來，只能是有針對性地抓出重點來學(xué)習，抓重點學(xué)習又具體分為三個層面，第一是針對名詞術(shù)語的學(xué)習，這方面具體來說就是對漢字，詞匯，拼音，語法語音等的重點學(xué)習，拼音是漢語言的基礎(chǔ)，掌握拼音，我們才能實現(xiàn)語言的溝通，只認得字而不會讀是沒有用的。抓住重點來說，就首先要掌握這些基本的，也是重點的部分來深入學(xué)習。另外，語音學(xué)習的話可以通過磁帶或者錄音等來配合我們的學(xué)習，磁帶或者課本一般會有配套的磁帶，它有很全面，正確的語音教學(xué)，可以多利用這些東西來學(xué)好漢語言基礎(chǔ)。第二，是對句子或句式的分析方法。漢語言文學(xué)從詞匯到句子再到整片文章，是一個逐漸提高的過程，漢語句子句式的學(xué)習也是一個重點。漢語言句式分類很多，有陳述句，感嘆句，反問句等等，這些特殊的句式對句子的意思是有直接的影響的，同樣一段文字，加上不用的標點符號意思就可能完全改變，因此，句式學(xué)習不僅是漢語言文學(xué)學(xué)習的重點，也是一個難點，只有搞懂每個特殊句式，才能夠正確理解文章的意思。要掌握句式的含義，必須要掌握每種句式的結(jié)構(gòu)，遇到具體問題還要進行句式分析，經(jīng)過分析確定句子所表達的意義。另外，漢語言文學(xué)中，在文言文的學(xué)習上，是相對比較難的，文言文的句式其實也都有一個明確的結(jié)構(gòu)，面對文言文時，要分清楚每段話的特殊句式或者句子的含義，分析和探究漢語言文學(xué)的句子句式，掌握這個重點，這樣對能更好地學(xué)好漢語言文學(xué)。第三，漢語言中，對關(guān)聯(lián)詞，連接詞的重點掌握。漢語言文學(xué)中，句子與句子之間一般都要通過關(guān)聯(lián)詞來進行鏈接，關(guān)聯(lián)詞對整片文章的銜接性或者通順與否都是有很大影響的。對關(guān)聯(lián)詞的意思不明確的話就不能夠搞清楚句子的意思，所以，在學(xué)習好漢語言文學(xué)時，關(guān)聯(lián)詞的學(xué)習也是一個重點。關(guān)聯(lián)詞就像詞匯一樣是必須花時間去記憶，積累的。在日常溝通中，關(guān)聯(lián)詞的運用也是很多的，關(guān)聯(lián)詞應(yīng)該作為漢語言文學(xué)學(xué)習的一個重點來講，漢語言的學(xué)習重點，總的來說，可以從這三個方面入手，還有一些其他的方面，比如還有理論表述方法等等，但是，歸結(jié)起來就是要對漢語言文學(xué)進行重點模塊學(xué)習，不能夠全部接收也不能全部放掉。只有抓住重點，學(xué)習效果才會明顯，學(xué)習效率也才能夠提高。
三、多動手，多做練習才能夠掌握知識
前面提到的主要的學(xué)習方法和學(xué)習重點，在上述的基礎(chǔ)上，學(xué)好漢語言文學(xué)還有一點重要要求，就是要動手實踐，多做練習。我們在學(xué)習漢語言文學(xué)時，學(xué)到再多的理論或者懂得再多的學(xué)習技巧，沒有動手去實踐，沒有做配套的練習還是不能夠掌握知識的。俗話說，勤能補拙，勤動手，多做練習才能把學(xué)到的理論進行實踐，才能在做練習過程中發(fā)現(xiàn)知識的學(xué)習是否有遺漏或者學(xué)習重點是否正確等等，學(xué)習漢語言就不能離開實效練習。做練習，是我們檢驗學(xué)習成果的一個重要途徑，也是鞏固知識的一個重要手段，在做練習中，我們可以深入對一些問題的探討或者研究，也能夠加深對知識的理解，因此，在掌握基礎(chǔ)知識和理論依據(jù)的同時，必須要多做練習才能夠平衡理論和實踐的關(guān)系，才能夠綜合學(xué)好漢語言文學(xué)。
總的來說，漢語言文學(xué)的學(xué)習需要全面地、系統(tǒng)化地，并且有重點地進行，有效的學(xué)習不僅需要學(xué)習技巧，還需要多做習題。掌握有效的學(xué)習技巧后，要配合多做練習才能鞏固知識，這樣才是科學(xué)的、有效的學(xué)習方式。
學(xué)習語言的方法范文第2篇
關(guān)鍵詞：幼兒 語言游戲化 方法
目前教育界普遍認可的一個觀點是，語言發(fā)展是智力發(fā)育的關(guān)鍵因素，而幼兒時期是人腦發(fā)育最迅速也是語言發(fā)展的敏感時期，在這段時期，如果對幼兒以科學(xué)的方法加以教育，可以使幼兒在提高語言表達能力的同時培養(yǎng)自身獨特的思維能力，能夠有效地促進幼兒認知、情感和思維領(lǐng)域的全面發(fā)展。因此對于幼兒的語言教育必須給予足夠的重視。而由于游戲能推動幼兒語言和思維的發(fā)展，語言游戲化教學(xué)也逐漸吸引了廣大教育工作者的目光。筆者經(jīng)過實踐的積累，總結(jié)了三點幼兒語言游戲化的教學(xué)方法。
一、開展區(qū)域活動，創(chuàng)造豐富的語言環(huán)境
在課堂上創(chuàng)設(shè)幼兒同伴間的情境交流模式，為幼兒提供豐富的語言環(huán)境。幼兒通過對自身現(xiàn)實生活的再現(xiàn)，在假想的情境中進行角色扮演。在這些角色游戲中，幼兒由于生活經(jīng)驗的不足，對于有些事物只停留在表面的印象教師一方面應(yīng)讓孩子進行角色扮演，同時也不能將自己視為局外人，要抓住合適的機會來豐富和拓展幼兒的語言內(nèi)容。比如在進行“買賣”扮演時，幼兒通過想象的情境來進行角色扮演，幼兒根據(jù)自己的生活經(jīng)驗組織詞語，同時教師還可以引導(dǎo)幼兒做些簡單的動作，同時配合著不同的表情。在“買賣”游戲中，有的幼兒對于超市的印象只停留在賣吃的上面，這時教師就可以詢問一句“你們超市還有其他東西賣嗎”，通過詢問，將幼兒的思維進一步擴散。而這樣幼兒紛紛回憶以前去超市的經(jīng)歷，并且能夠通過自己的言語描述出來。
除了“做中說”外，還有“做后說”，比如在看圖講訴《打掃衛(wèi)生》時，可以先安排幾名幼兒表演劇情，在表演完后，讓幼兒描述劇情中的內(nèi)容，這樣的方法就比單純地看圖講訴有效地多。“做后說”，能夠讓幼兒運用更豐富的詞語來更形象地描述劇情。“做前說”，在安排幼兒進行某項區(qū)域活動時，可以先讓幼兒講訴自己的計劃，打算怎樣玩，玩什么，然后按自己描述的去做。
在角色游戲不斷開展的過程中，隨著幼兒的生活經(jīng)驗不斷豐富，能夠提供的情境也不斷增加，幼兒的角色游戲會逐漸深入，情節(jié)也不斷豐富，而幼兒置身于這樣的情景游戲中，不僅能夠培養(yǎng)幼兒的語言能力，而且能夠培養(yǎng)幼兒的合作意識。
二、適當提問，通過語言游戲，打開幼兒思路
在語言教學(xué)中，好的提問一方面能夠吸引幼兒的注意力，另一方面也能夠打開幼兒的思路，促進幼兒去思考問題。如果教師在語言教學(xué)中的提問，仍然停留在“好不好”，“對不對”“是不是”中，那么幼兒會對這樣的提問反感，而且也會以敷衍的方式去回答，完全沒有起到有效教學(xué)的作用。此外，如果教師的提問沒有任何技巧，而且也不注意難度的話，也同樣會導(dǎo)致幼兒對回答問題產(chǎn)生抗拒的心理。而在語言游戲中，通過一系列有技巧性、有針對性地提問，豐富幼兒的詞匯，使得幼兒在語言表達上更加準確。比如在春天，向幼兒提問，春天來了，在幼兒園中可以看見什么。有的幼兒回答：“小花小草”；有的回答：“蝴蝶”，有的回答：“綠葉”。同時讓幼兒從斷句開始，慢慢將長句說完，比如“春天來了，小草發(fā)芽了，萬物復(fù)蘇了”等。而針對幼兒在語言表達上的不規(guī)范，可以采用“你說我找”的語言游戲。在游戲中中，教師可以挑選幼兒在語言表達中比較容易犯的錯誤進行表述，讓幼兒來尋找這段話中的錯誤，由于這些錯誤是幼兒平時經(jīng)常犯的，而現(xiàn)在自己能夠發(fā)現(xiàn)，也偏于以后能夠糾正。同時可以采用小紅花這樣一個獎勵方式，抽取幼兒來回答問題，答對了獎勵小紅花。比如提問：“XX小朋友，你知道汽車和什么工具功能差不多嗎”，“魚和蝦的共同點嗎”，由于小紅花存在的激勵作用，幼兒往往會爭先恐后地要回答。通過一系列的問題，不僅能夠讓幼兒關(guān)注生活，而且豐富幼兒的詞匯，促進口語表達能力和思維能力的發(fā)展。
三、將教材貫穿于游戲化教學(xué)中
正規(guī)、專門的幼兒語言教學(xué)活動，是幼兒語言教育的主要途徑。在這種正規(guī)的語言教學(xué)活動中，離不開教材。所以教師需要根據(jù)幼兒的特點，選取能激發(fā)幼兒興趣的對象來打到語言教學(xué)的母的。
首先，可以通過兒歌來訓(xùn)練幼兒的語音。正確的發(fā)音，對于語言學(xué)習來說，能夠起到事半功倍的作用。而兒歌教學(xué)由于其自身有著優(yōu)美的節(jié)奏和韻律，幼兒能夠比較容易接受，而平時經(jīng)常朗誦兒歌，也能夠使得語音的糾正見效很快。此外，在日常的語言教學(xué)中念繞口令，猜謎語等小游戲都能夠訓(xùn)練幼兒準確地發(fā)出一些比較困難的易錯的音。這些方法能夠?qū)⒄_的語法、詞匯與幼兒口語結(jié)合起來，不僅能夠激發(fā)幼兒本身具有的模仿興趣，而且能夠在潛移默化中提高幼兒的語言表達能力。
其次，兒童故事也是幼兒喜愛的題材。幼兒喜歡聽故事，是因為故事里有著不同的畫面，不同的人物，能夠供幼兒自己去想象。此外，通過對幼兒講解兒童故事一方面能夠豐富幼兒的詞匯量，使幼兒能夠從上下文的語言情景來學(xué)習單詞，并且能夠根據(jù)語境，在以后的生活中模仿著使用新的單詞。同時通過講故事能夠培養(yǎng)幼兒善于傾聽的技能，通過聽來促進幼兒語言能力的提高。
大量的研究表明：只有激發(fā)幼兒學(xué)習語言的興趣，才能真正促進幼兒語言能力的提高。而游戲化教學(xué)，通過開展區(qū)域活動，進行提問，將教材貫穿于其中，為幼兒提供了語言實踐的機會，發(fā)展了幼兒口語交際的能力。
參考文獻：
[1]李成梅.多樣化活動促進幼兒語言發(fā)展[J].基礎(chǔ)教育參考，2012（02）
學(xué)習語言的方法范文第3篇
【關(guān)鍵詞】西方經(jīng)濟學(xué)；原理；研究方法
一、宏觀經(jīng)濟學(xué)的基本概念和研究對象
（1）西方經(jīng)濟學(xué)的基本概念。西方經(jīng)濟學(xué)是一個內(nèi)容相當廣泛而松散的名詞，迄今在世界上尚不存在一個眾所同意的定義。它可以泛指大量與經(jīng)濟問題有關(guān)的各種不同的文獻、資料和統(tǒng)計報告，其中包括教科書、官方文件、私營經(jīng)濟記錄、專業(yè)或非專業(yè)著作、報刊雜志的文章和報道等等。（2）宏觀經(jīng)濟學(xué)與微觀經(jīng)濟學(xué)。政治經(jīng)濟學(xué)或稱理論經(jīng)濟學(xué)，是以人類社會在特定生產(chǎn)方式下的經(jīng)濟生活，即人類賴以生存和發(fā)展所必需的物質(zhì)資料和勞務(wù)的生產(chǎn)、分配、交換（在勞動產(chǎn)品是商品的條件下）和消費作為研究對象的一門社會科學(xué)。
二、西方經(jīng)濟學(xué)的研究方法
1．實證方法。實證分析構(gòu)成經(jīng)濟學(xué)的基本內(nèi)容，也是經(jīng)濟學(xué)的一個基本方法。西方經(jīng)濟學(xué)認為，要使經(jīng)濟學(xué)能成為真正的科學(xué)，就必須拋開價值判斷問題，使經(jīng)濟實證化。中國經(jīng)濟學(xué)有著深厚的規(guī)范分析的傳統(tǒng)，致使經(jīng)濟學(xué)在很大程度上無法解釋現(xiàn)實經(jīng)濟，在許多問題的討論上始終無法得到一個相對一致的結(jié)論。所以，在經(jīng)濟學(xué)研究中引入實證方法不僅是一個重要的方法問題，還關(guān)系到經(jīng)濟學(xué)的社會價值問題。
2．數(shù)學(xué)方法。數(shù)學(xué)方法是經(jīng)濟學(xué)家“工具箱”中一個重要的工具。一些經(jīng)濟學(xué)家把數(shù)學(xué)當作經(jīng)濟分析的唯一手段，不顧條件地加以運用，這種運用在很大程度上是一種形式主義的運用。主要表現(xiàn)在：第一，有些文章不是從研究的需要出發(fā)運用數(shù)學(xué)工具，而把數(shù)學(xué)公式模型作為裝點。第二，有些研究成果假設(shè)過多而且隨意性很大，在資料的處理上往往人為地進行“調(diào)整”，降低了論證的說服力。第三，有些運用數(shù)學(xué)方法取得的研究成果，由于缺乏必要的定性研究作指導(dǎo)和必要的經(jīng)濟理論知識作支撐，往往是前后矛盾或違背常識，貌似科學(xué)、嚴密，實則有很多漏洞，更無法操作。
3．結(jié)構(gòu)分析方法。結(jié)構(gòu)主義是西方經(jīng)濟增長理論和發(fā)展經(jīng)濟學(xué)所采用的分析方法，也是現(xiàn)代經(jīng)濟學(xué)中一種具有很大影響的理論思路。這一方法的理論特征是從經(jīng)濟整體性及結(jié)構(gòu)分析的角度分析經(jīng)濟的發(fā)展。他們認為，在發(fā)展中國家，經(jīng)濟結(jié)構(gòu)缺乏彈性，價格的相對變動對資源重新配置的推動作用很小，供給與需求向均衡點的運動不能自動進行，從而市場不能結(jié)清，缺口無法填平。因此，發(fā)展中國家經(jīng)濟中普遍存在的不是自我均衡的體系，而是持續(xù)的不均衡狀態(tài)。這種不均衡狀態(tài)的主要根源是部門間的結(jié)構(gòu)上的差異。因此，必須把經(jīng)濟分解成幾個構(gòu)成部分，從結(jié)構(gòu)聯(lián)系的角度去分析經(jīng)濟發(fā)展的進程。比較系統(tǒng)完整地介紹了西方經(jīng)濟學(xué)研究方法，并根據(jù)其個人研究成果，作了相當?shù)难a充和完善，構(gòu)成了一個有一定獨創(chuàng)特色的比較完整的經(jīng)濟學(xué)方法論體系。
4．觀察與實驗。觀察與實驗是科學(xué)研究的開始，其中，“觀察”是指在不進行人為干預(yù)的前提下，將實際發(fā)生的經(jīng)濟現(xiàn)象及其過程客觀地記錄下來。“實驗”則是在某種人工控制條件下，小范圍模擬現(xiàn)實經(jīng)濟現(xiàn)象，并據(jù)此對現(xiàn)實經(jīng)濟現(xiàn)象進行分析和推斷。在觀察和實驗時，需要掌握一定的科學(xué)調(diào)查統(tǒng)計技術(shù)，如全面普查、重點調(diào)查、典型調(diào)查、抽樣調(diào)查等。由于經(jīng)濟信息常常涉及到人的切身利益，當事人常常會有意無意、或多或少地隱瞞甚至假造數(shù)據(jù)和事實，因而為了獲得確切的事實材料，還需要掌握必要的訪談技巧，一般的原則是拉近感情、隱蔽企圖、旁敲側(cè)擊、催人入眠、多方印證。
5．理論模型。理論模型可以用文字描述，也可以用數(shù)學(xué)公式（Mathematics formula）表達。現(xiàn)代西方經(jīng)濟學(xué)一般傾向于應(yīng)用數(shù)學(xué)公式，其基本做法是：將所有研究對象都稱為“變量”（Variables），然后先做出一定的假設(shè)（Hypothesis），通常假定除所要研究的少數(shù)幾個主要變量外，其它所有變量和外部條件都不變（Other things constant，或Ceteris paribus），在此假設(shè)前提下，再以有關(guān)數(shù)據(jù)材料為基礎(chǔ)，通過邏輯分析和統(tǒng)計檢驗，建立主要變量之間的邏輯關(guān)系。建立理論模型時要注意“合理假設(shè)”。原則上只有無關(guān)緊要的因素，才可以忽略不計，或假設(shè)為不變。但究竟哪些因素可以忽略不計，哪些因素不能忽略？需要根據(jù)具體問題具體分析。
6．均衡分析與非均衡分析。目前西方經(jīng)濟學(xué)中占主導(dǎo)地位的是均衡分析方法。作為一個系統(tǒng)，社會經(jīng)濟內(nèi)部諸因素之間客觀上存在一定的比例關(guān)系，因此均衡分析作為一種基本的經(jīng)濟學(xué)方法得到普遍應(yīng)用，是很自然的。但另一方面，社會經(jīng)濟系統(tǒng)內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)是相當松散的，并且經(jīng)常處于變動中，包括各因素之間的數(shù)量比例關(guān)系，也都在不停地變化，因而非均衡分析的思路也很值得引起重視。
參考文獻
學(xué)習語言的方法范文第4篇
Key words: short massage or SM， misunderstanding， cooperative principle， body language， facial expression， intonation， stress， written language
摘要：本文的開頭對移動電話的短消息（又稱短信）作了簡要的介紹。盡管短消息的出現(xiàn)給人們帶來了方便，短消息自身語言的特點導(dǎo)致了它容易被人們誤解。從語言學(xué)的角度，本文分析了導(dǎo)致短信被誤解的幾個因素。第一，短消息語言違背了合作原則。人們在交際過程中，常常會采用一種準則。為了很好的交流，人們回遵守“會話準則”。而短信語言對準則的違背，導(dǎo)致了短信的作用不明確。并且，人們在解釋短信內(nèi)容時，往往只根據(jù)自己的經(jīng)驗。第二，與面對面的談話和電話通訊相比，短信缺少肢體語言、表情、適當?shù)闹匾艉驼Z調(diào)。第三，短信語言與書面語言相比，具有隨意性。文章的結(jié)尾對相關(guān)的問題提出了解決的辦法。
關(guān)鍵詞：短消息或短信、誤解、合作原則、肢體語言、表情、重音、語調(diào)、書面語言
An Analysis of Short Message Language and Behaviors with a Linguistic Approach
Thesis statement: Short message is vulnerable to misunderstanding， which can be explained by the violation of the cooperative principle， and in contrast with traditional conversation and written language， the deficiency of short message is analyzed.
Outline
I
Introduction
II
The vulnerability of SM to misunderstanding from the perspective of the cooperative principle
A. Introduction of cooperative and the violation of maxims
B. Three kinds of misunderstanding
⑴ The indefinite nature of the sender’s message
⑵ A number of factors affecting the interpretation of SM
⑶ The query concerning the end of SM conversation
III The deficiency of SM in contrast with face-to-face conversation and TEL call
A. The lack of body language and expression
B. The lack of stress and intonation
IV The casualness of SM in contrast with written language
A. SM processed at random
B. The differences between SM language and written language
V Conclusion
I Introduction
Short Message Service (SMS) is a new communicational tool that combines the functions of mobile phone and pager. According to the statistics from Global GPS Association， the total number of SMs has reached 510 billion in 2003， and China accounts for one third of them， soaring to 170 billion. SM is regarded as a convenient， highly democratic， informational medium for conveying messages that conforms well to human needs. As a modern communication tool， SM has many advantages which are absent in other communication medias. For example， SM enables dumb people to communicate freely with healthy people; SM makes no noise which may bother others; SM protects privacy， because no third party knows the content of SM conversation.
However， the characteristics of SM language also bring negative effects to people’s life. People find that SM is not so powerful and pleasant， and it can be easily misunderstood. With the help of linguistic approaches， factors that are responsible for the misunderstanding of SM are analyzed: 1). the violation of the cooperative principle. 2) SM can not take the place of face-to-face conversation. 3) SM is more casual than written language.
II The vulnerability of SM to misunderstanding from the perspective of the cooperative principle
The process of sending SM is so easy and informal that people treat it as they do conversation. SM is a bit like a conversation at the water cooler that can be instantly forwarded to 50 people. For a conversation to be successful， in most social contexts， the participants need to feel they are contributing something to it and are getting something out of it. For this to happen， certain conditions must apply. Everyone must have an opportunity to speak: no one should be monopolizing or constantly interrupting. The participants need to make their roles clear; they need to have a sense of when to speak or stay silent; when to proffer information or hold it back; when to stay aloof or become involved.
The success of a conversation depends not only on what speakers say but on their whole approach to the interaction. “Our talk exchanges do not normally consist of a succession of disconnected remarks， and would not be rational if they did. They are characteristically， to some degree at least， cooperative efforts; and each participant recognizes in them， to some extent， a common purpose or set of purposes， or at least a mutually accepted direction” (Grice 1975: 45).
People adopt a “cooperative principle” when they communicate with each other: they try to get along with each other by following certain conversational “maxims” that underlie the efficient use of language. Four basic maxims have been proposed.
? The maxim of quality states that speakers’ contributions to a conversation ought to be true. They should not say what they believe to be false， nor should they say anything for which they lack adequate evidence.
? The maxim of quantity states that contributions should be as informative as is required for the purposes of the conversation. One should say neither too little nor too much.
? The maxim of relevance states that conversations should clearly relate to the purpose of the exchange.
? The maxim of manner states that the contribution should be perspicuous， in particular， that it should be orderly and brief， avoiding obstructing ambiguity.
In short， these maxims specify what participants have to do in order to converse in a maximally efficient， rational， co-operative way: they should speak sincerely， relevantly and clearly， while providing sufficient information. But the use of terms principle and maxim does not mean that the cooperative principle and its maxims will be followed by everybody all the time. If people violate these maxims deliberately， listeners may draw inference from what speakers have said and work out the implicature of the utterance. But for SM users， violation of maxims is done passively.
Then let us take a look at the following short messages recorded in the author’s mobile phone.
No.1. A: “Still busy?”---9:40 pm
(Conversation started， but A’s purpose is confusing)
No.2. B: “Not too busy， what’s up?”---9:41 pm
(Actually B was very busy in his essay， may be writing， but B inferred that A must have something important to tell.)
No.3. A: “When you worked in the Computer Association， have you ever failed to negotiate with sponsors?”---9:46 pm
(It takes A 5 minutes to respond. He attempts to make his words appropriate. B has to suspend his work and wait for a direct answer. But this answer seems so irrelevant.)
No.4. B: “No”---9:47 pm
(B tries to concentrate on his work， so he responds briefly. A is quite frustrated by the failed negotiation and needs someone to comfort him. The single word “No” makes him think that if B is not busy， how B could be so cold.)
No.5. A: “Sorry， I thought you did， then， good night.”---9:49 pm
(Conversation has to be ended up unpleasantly)
No.6. B: “Good night.”---9:50 pm
(B is still unaware of A’s intention. He can do nothing but end conversation.)
The two participants of this short conversation violate the four maxims violations of maxims.
No.1 violates M of quantity. He says too little. He should state his purpose clearly.
No.2 violates M of quality. He says something that is false， but he has to.
No.3 Here A’s contribution in its literal meaning， fails to answer B’s question， and thus seems to violate at least the maxims of quantity and relevance. We might therefore expect A’s utterance to be interpreted as a non-co-operative response. Yet it is clear that despite this apparent failure of co-operation， we try to interpret A’s utterance as cooperative at some deeper level. We can assure that there could be some possible connection between No.2 and No.3. However， since it is a SM conversation， A and B could not see each other. B is actually in a hurry and he wants to go to the topic directly， but A wants a euphemistic way. Here SM is not powerful enough to connect the states of mind of the two persons.
No.4 also violates M of quantity. B is supposed to be considerate.
No.5 violates M of manner. Two sentences seem not orderly.
However， in our daily conversation， the implicatures of words are easily deduced. So why does the violation of co-operative principle in SM fail to enable people to work out the exact implicatures? There must be some other factors contributing to the understanding of words. We shall further discuss this point in the third section. Although the two participants of this short conversation do not violate maxims deliberately and purposefully， their words are misconstrued. And the misconstructions of SM can be sorted into three.
Firstly， the purpose of SM language is not definite， i.e.， the functions of SM language are not clear. Linguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract sense， that is， not in terms of using language to chat， to think， to buy and sell， to read and write， to greet people， etc. To communicate our ideas is the usual answer to the question “why do we use language?” Indeed， this must surely be the most widely recognized function of language. Whenever we tell people about our circumstances or ourselves or ask for information about other selves， we are using language in order to exchange fact sand opinions. The use of language is often called “ideational or referential”. But it would be problematic to think of it as the only way we use language. Linguists summarize these practical functions of language like following: informative， interpersonal， performative， emotive， phatic， recreational and metalingual (Hu 2001: 10). Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language that is language has IDEATIONAL， INTERPERSONAL， and Textual functions. Ideational function constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations， interpersonal function enacts social relationships and textual function creates relevance to context (Halliday 1985: VIII).
Among them， the first two functions are often mixed up in SM language. For most people， the informative function is predominantly the major role of language. Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel the need to speak their thoughts aloud as when they are working on a math problem.
And the most important sociological use of language is the interpersonal function， by which people establish and maintain a comfortable relation in a society. SM is a medium whose function is rather confusing. People use it to convey information， keep in touch with each other， share jokes， express emotions or even pass anger. But the recipient cannot tell which from which， he might deal with his short messages with an attitude that is unexpected by its sender. Let’s see the following example.
A: “I played football this afternoon， how tired I am.”
B: “Oh， really? You’re energetic!”
The conversation ends here. A feels tired after playing football， and sends a SM to one of his friends B to express his excitement. But this confuses B as to how to respond appropriately， or he may simply brood about it for quite a long time.
Secondly， the recipients of SM make their own interpretations based on situational effects and schemata. The first and the second sort of misunderstandings can be somewhat overlapping. Because function of SM language is not clear， people began to interpret messages with their own experience. Besides， the quantity of information conveyed is often inadequate， SM leaves a lot of blank spaces in what people say， which the recipient tends to fill with the most negative interpretations.
Thirdly， how to end SM conversation and when is the right time to end it also bother SM users a lot. No matter how people enjoy SM， writing it is very time consuming. If one wants to end it and the other does not， at least one will be unpleasant. It is unlikely that both of them are ready for SM conversation at the same time， because two people are in two environments.
III The deficiency of SM in contrast with face-to-face conversation and Tel call
People can hide themselves behind the tiny screens， and therefore， they are braver and they can tell whatever they like. So many people are now abusing it. But is it superior to face-to-face conversations and telephone calls? The answer might be no.
Firstly， SM lacks body language and facial expressions. The communicative use of the visual and tactile modes is often referred to as “nonverbal communication”， especially in academic discussion. In everyday terms， it is the area of “body language” (Crystal 1997: 403). Most people may not be aware of the importance of it when they message each other， because they do it subconsciously. The field of non-verbal visual communication， kinesics， can be broken down into several components: facial expression， eye contact， gesture， and body posture. Each component performs a variety of functions. Movements of the face and body can give clues to a person’s personality and emotional state. The face， in particular， signals a wide range of emotions， such as fear， happiness， sadness， anger， surprise， interest， and disgust. Many of the expressions vary in meaning from culture to culture. In addition， the face and body send signals about the way a social interaction is proceeding. Patterns of eye contact show who is talking to whom; facial expression provides feed-back to the speaker， expressing such meanings as puzzlement or disbelief; and a body posture conveys a person’s attitude towards the interaction (e.g. relaxation， interest， boredom).
Several kinds of social context are associated with specific facial or body behaviors (e.g. waving while taking leave.) Ritual or official occasions are often primarily marked by such factors as kneeling， or blessing. While SM only provides its recipient scores of characters (one short massage contains no more than 70 Chinese characters)， the sender’s facial expression or even his attitude towards what he said only depends on the recipient’s personal imagination. The real meaning of SM and intention thus are often misunderstood.
Besides， compared with traditional conversation， SM lacks proper stress and intonation. Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription， a raised vertical like [ ′] is used just before the syllable it relates to. A basic distinction is made between stressed and unstressed syllables， the former being more prominent than the latter usually due to an increase in loudness， length or pitch. This means that stress is a relative notion. (Hu 2001:71) At the word level， it only applies to words with at least two syllables. Stress pattern in Chinese is easier， because we can just focus on sentence level， where a monosyllabic word may be said to be stressed relative to other words in the sentence. Sentence stress is often used to express emphasis， surprise， etc， so that in principle stress may fall on any word or any syllable. For example， a SM conversation begins with a sentence like this， “I went shopping around Jiefangbei the whole day. I bought nothing.”
The sentence is quite clear， but which word does the sender emphasize? If this sentence is carried on a telephone or face-to-face conversation， it will not cause any puzzle.
Intonation， and other suprasegmental features of language， performs a variety of different functions. (Crystal 1992: 173) The most obvious function is to express a wide range of attitudinal meanings---excitement， boredom， surprise， friendliness， reserve， and many hundreds more. Intonation conveys a great deal about what is referred to as the “information structure” of the utterance. Intonation can help to organize language units that are more easily perceived and memorized.
IV The casualness of SM in contrast with written language
However， we cannot simply say the written form of speech is less powerful in communication. One thing that differs SM language from letters， and E-mail is the casualness of SM. SM is often processed under a random condition. The user may do it while he is having lunch， taking a walk， reading books， talking to others， or watching TV， etc. He could not focus all his attention on writing what he wants to say. He has to do it with little thought. Besides， sometimes， one SM user may message three others or more at the same time. The overloaded user has to speed it up， and the quality of SM decreases. But when people write letters， they are much more considerate. Unlike SM， sending letters is demanding， since we cannot write letters wherever and whenever we like. Once a letter is sent， little chance left for the addresser to explain it.
Thus， SM is more like a record of spoken language， and the number of its characters is quite limited (no more than 70， including punctuations). In the following parts， we focus on difference between SM language and written language.
The permanence of writing allows repeated reading and close analysis. It promotes the development of artful organization and more concise， intricately structured expression. Units of discourse， such as sentences and paragraphs， are clearly identified through layout and punctuation. (Crystal 1992: 181) By contrast， the spontaneity and rapidity of SM minimize the chance of complex preplanning， and it also lacks repetition， rephrasing filler phrases (such as you know， you see， think) that assist speakers to “think standing up”， and there is no use of intonation and pause to pide an utterance into manageable chunks.
The participants in written interaction cannot usually see each other， and they thus cannot rely on the context to help make clear what they mean， as they would when speaking. As a consequence， writing avoids words whose meaning rely on situation (such as this one， over there). Writers also have to anticipate the effects of time lag between production and reception. This is out of the question in SM. SM users assume that the other side is always ready for reception of SM (actually， it is quite normal that the recipient is very busy)， and that the feedback would come immediately. But SM is not time-bound， and the situation in which both participants are present is rare.
Written language tends to be more formal than SM language and is more likely to provide the standard that society values. Different people have developed their own SM habit or style. Some people frequently use punctuations， such as “:-)”， “:-(”， “:-=”， “:-*” ; some use capitalized word for example “Oh， TMD”， “I’ll T you” to express special meanings. These words， on one hand， make SM language vivid， but on the other hand， language barrier is formed. Not every body could understand these fashionable words， and it is being updated. People， especially those who seldom message another， find themselves trapped by these personally coined words and expressions.
V Conclusion
Mobile-based SM is not bad itself. Like the emergence of television， SM is also strongly criticized for its disadvantage. If we use it appropriately， it makes our life better. Here， several solutions are suggested.
In the absence of immediate feedback， available in most speech interaction， care needs to be taken to minimize the effects of vagueness and ambiguity.
⑴Before messaging， thinking about the recipient’s situation is helpful， e.g.， is the recipient still at his work? If time is not right， SM might bother the recipient.
⑵The language of SM must be well chosen. We can use fashion words or coined words when we message an intimate friends， because we share the same environment， and these words will work perfectly in communication. But if the recipient is not so familiar， we’d better use formal words. In other words， how we message should be based on the specific recipient.
⑶In terms of the contents of SM， it should not be used to discuss bad news. Never criticize somebody and never discuss if there’s any chance that what we say might be taken to a wrong way， we should pick up the phone or walk out to discuss it in person.
For the recipient， there are some other suggestions which might be helpful.
⑴If we are doing something very important， such as giving a lecture or having a conference， in which disturbance is not allowed， we had better shut off our mobile phones. Once a person tries to send us a short message， he or she may quickly find that the recipient is not available at that moment. Thus， waiting and further guessing can be avoided.
⑵However， it is inevitable to come across unpleasant words in SM， in terms of both language and content. We should bear this in mind that most people would send SM with little thoughts. If we do feel quite bothered， we should call the sender and make the matter clear as quickly as possible. Bibliography
Crystal， David. The Cambridge Encylopaedia of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press， 1992.
Grice， H. P. Logic and conversation. In P.Cole&J.L.Morgan(eds) Speech acts. New York:
Academic Press， 1975.
學(xué)習語言的方法范文第5篇
[關(guān)鍵詞]：高中生 厭學(xué) 對策
學(xué)生厭學(xué)是一種典型的心理疲倦反應(yīng)，是指學(xué)生消極對待學(xué)習活動的行為反應(yīng)模式，主要表現(xiàn)為學(xué)生對學(xué)習認識存在偏差，情感上消極對待學(xué)習，行為上主動遠離學(xué)習。所有這些都嚴重地影響著學(xué)生的學(xué)習熱情和學(xué)習效果。這幾年來通過對高中學(xué)生生物學(xué)習厭學(xué)的研究，我對厭學(xué)的教育方法有了一定的認識，愈是研究愈發(fā)覺得值得探究的問題和東西太多，而哪怕是解決了一小部分問題，都會對日常的教育教學(xué)工作有很大的幫助。
解決厭學(xué)的問題應(yīng)該從社會，學(xué)校，家庭和學(xué)生四個方面入手。對于教師來說，幫助學(xué)生樹立自尊心，增強自信心，營造良好的心理環(huán)境和學(xué)習環(huán)境；注重教學(xué)的科學(xué)性，教育方法的多樣性，學(xué)生之間的合作學(xué)習，及時進行必要的基礎(chǔ)知識的鞏固，理論聯(lián)系生活實際等是比較可行的策略。
1、構(gòu)建和諧的師生關(guān)系，矯治學(xué)生厭學(xué)心理，減少學(xué)生厭學(xué)行為的發(fā)生
（1）.傾注愛心，尊重關(guān)愛學(xué)生。在課堂教學(xué)工作中，教師的事業(yè)心、責任心及其人格力量是學(xué)生健康成長的動力。教師在教學(xué)工作中應(yīng)該傾注滿腔熱情，相信每個學(xué)生都會發(fā)展成才。教師要面向全體，善待每個學(xué)生，關(guān)愛每個學(xué)生，學(xué)生熱愛老師，往往會將這種情感遷移到學(xué)習中來，似乎覺得不學(xué)好就對不住關(guān)心愛護自己的老師。
（2）欣賞鼓勵，提高學(xué)生學(xué)習的積極性。學(xué)生在學(xué)習中存在缺點和問題屬于正常現(xiàn)象。教師在課堂教育教學(xué)工作中，要不斷地向?qū)W生提出合適的期望目標，采取與學(xué)生情感接近或相容的態(tài)度和方法，善于發(fā)現(xiàn)其長處并由衷地欣賞，形成和諧的情感基調(diào)；對學(xué)生的缺點和錯誤不能一味地指責或當眾訓(xùn)斥，少一點審查責備的目光，多一些欣賞鼓勵的熱情，幫助他們在學(xué)習中取得進步，在成功或失敗的體驗中不斷努力。
2、優(yōu)化過程，激發(fā)學(xué)生興趣
（1）.構(gòu)建情境。教師要通過構(gòu)建激發(fā)學(xué)生興趣的教學(xué)情境，緊密聯(lián)系實際，堅持情感滲透，激發(fā)學(xué)生參與學(xué)習的動機，通過設(shè)計一些開放性、發(fā)散性、挑戰(zhàn)性的問題，選擇有吸引力的材料，把學(xué)生從苦學(xué)的深淵帶到樂學(xué)的天堂，變“要我學(xué)”為“我要學(xué)”，提高學(xué)生參與教學(xué)的主動性。教師要善于在教學(xué)中用幽默的方式，引發(fā)學(xué)生的興趣，激發(fā)他們的求知欲，有利于讓學(xué)生體會到學(xué)習知識的重要性，更有利于引導(dǎo)學(xué)生應(yīng)用所學(xué)的知識去解決實際問題。
（2）.分層設(shè)標。學(xué)生可以分成好、中、差三等，對不同學(xué)生要求可以不同。分類分層制定有序的教學(xué)目標，激發(fā)學(xué)生自發(fā)、自主地學(xué)習，讓不同層次的學(xué)生從不同的角度探究、有不同的發(fā)現(xiàn)，都嘗到學(xué)習的甜頭，贏得成功的喜悅。
（3）.開放教學(xué)。學(xué)生在課堂面對問題、情景和事實時，會有多種結(jié)論。教師要鼓勵學(xué)生提出自己的觀點，寬容失敗，欣賞智慧，關(guān)注方法，避免打擊學(xué)生的積極性。教師要充分發(fā)揮主導(dǎo)作用，針對學(xué)生情況，因材施教地指導(dǎo)學(xué)法，促進教學(xué)過程的開放，讓學(xué)生感到學(xué)校有“自我發(fā)展區(qū)”，提高學(xué)習的自主性，為未來的發(fā)展奠定堅實的基礎(chǔ)。
（4）.重視過程教學(xué)
愛因斯坦說：“發(fā)展獨立思考和獨立判斷的一般能力，應(yīng)當始終放在首位，而不應(yīng)當把獲得專業(yè)知識放在首位。如果一個人掌握了它的學(xué)科的基礎(chǔ)理論，并學(xué)會獨立地思考和工作，他必定會找到他自己的道路，而且比起那種主要以獲得細節(jié)知識為其培訓(xùn)內(nèi)容的人來，他一定會更好地適應(yīng)進步和變化。”因此在生物學(xué)中引導(dǎo)學(xué)生建立一些基本的觀點；掌握一些基本的研究生物問題的方法尤為重要。所以必須注重探究教學(xué)，能讓學(xué)生體驗探究的過程，感受成功的喜悅，引起學(xué)生的興趣，增強學(xué)生對知識的理解和接受程度。
3、成功強化
成功可起到正強化作用，經(jīng)常給學(xué)生呈現(xiàn)愉快的刺激，有助于推動學(xué)生積極主動地學(xué)習。在教學(xué)中創(chuàng)設(shè)成功機會，如設(shè)置不同程度的問題，讓不同的學(xué)生獲得表現(xiàn)的機會，增加學(xué)習的信心。適當降低學(xué)習目標，低起點、慢步子、是大部分學(xué)生能獲得成功的重要途經(jīng)；對于學(xué)習者來說，成功便是最好的獎勵；而對于教育者來說，學(xué)習者的成功是結(jié)果，如果視之不見，漠不關(guān)心，那么很可能會熄滅學(xué)習者的學(xué)習熱情，故仍需要獎勵，如此，能使學(xué)生心理獲得積極的滿足感與自豪感。
4、正確歸因
歸因是學(xué)生對自己的學(xué)習行為結(jié)果的原因作出解釋或推測的過程，是一種比較穩(wěn)定的人格定量，它對后繼學(xué)習產(chǎn)生深刻的影響。正確的歸因，有助于推動后繼學(xué)習；錯誤的歸因，則往往會抑制后繼學(xué)習。我們應(yīng)該引導(dǎo)學(xué)生對自己的學(xué)習成敗的原因歸之于自身努力。成功了是努力到位，失敗了是努力不夠。不能歸因于能力，否則，成功了可能助長驕傲情緒，失敗了必定產(chǎn)生頹廢心理，而后者極易導(dǎo)致厭學(xué)現(xiàn)象的發(fā)生。當學(xué)生認為自己天生愚笨時，很容易灰心喪氣，泯滅信心，失去繼續(xù)學(xué)習的勇氣。除作努力歸因外，還可作現(xiàn)實歸因、興趣歸因、策略歸因等，對后繼學(xué)習均能起到積極作用。
5、把學(xué)校教育與家庭教育有機結(jié)合起來
良好的家庭教育對培養(yǎng)學(xué)生積極的學(xué)習態(tài)度十分重要.家長以身作則，提高素質(zhì)，為孩子創(chuàng)設(shè)良好的家庭氛圍（平等、民主、團結(jié)、和睦、融洽），爭取創(chuàng)建學(xué)習型家庭。尊重孩子，家長不要以自己的想法和標準來要求和衡量孩子的成績和決定，只要不違背原則，他們盡力發(fā)展了即可。了解孩子，關(guān)心孩子，縮短與孩子的心理距離。對孩子的缺點錯誤不是批評指責，而是分析、引導(dǎo)和幫助改正。
總之，高中學(xué)生對生物學(xué)習厭學(xué)現(xiàn)象是普遍存在、而且十分復(fù)雜的，涉及到家庭、社會、學(xué)校及學(xué)生等多個方面，應(yīng)該進一步作深層次的探討，選擇適合的教育方法來準確地對待不同的學(xué)生。要徹底解決這個問題，需要教育工作者進行深入細致的探討研究，需要全社會各方面的共同關(guān)注.期望本人對厭學(xué)的高中生有所幫助，我也會繼續(xù)關(guān)注這一問題。
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